Rhythm & Sound – the Versions Uploaded

Attribute of music

Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός , rhythmos, "whatever regular recurring move, symmetry"^[1]) generally means a "movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of reverse or dissimilar atmospheric condition".^[2] This full general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in fourth dimension can apply to a broad multifariousness of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything from microseconds to several seconds (as with the riff in a rock music song); to several minutes or hours, or, at the near extreme, even over many years.

Rhythm is related to and distinguished from pulse, meter, and beats:

Rhythm may be defined as the way in which one or more unaccented beats are grouped in relation to an accented 1. ... A rhythmic group can be apprehended only when its elements are distinguished from 1 another, rhythm...always involves an interrelationship between a single, accented (potent) beat out and either i or two unaccented (weak) beats.^[3]

In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a man scale; of musical sounds and silences that occur over fourth dimension, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the rhythmic commitment of the lyrics is ane of the about important elements of the style. Rhythm may besides refer to visual presentation, every bit "timed movement through space"^[four] and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. For example, architects often speak of the rhythm of a edifice, referring to patterns in the spacing of windows, columns, and other elements of the façade.^{[ citation needed ]} In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston,^[5] Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff,^[6] Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty,^[7] Godfried Toussaint,^[8] William Rothstein,^[9] Joel Lester,^[ten] and Guerino Mazzola.

Anthropology [edit]

Percussion instruments have clearly defined sounds that aid the cosmos and perception of complex rhythms.

In his tv series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human being rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk and the heartbeat.^[11] Other research suggests that information technology does not relate to the heartbeat direct, but rather the speed of emotional bear on, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that since sure features of human music are widespread, it is "reasonable to suspect that crush-based rhythmic processing has ancient evolutionary roots".^[12] Justin London writes that musical metre "involves our initial perception as well equally subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that nosotros abstract from the rhythm surface of the music equally it unfolds in time".^[13] The "perception" and "abstraction" of rhythmic mensurate is the foundation of human being instinctive musical participation, as when we separate a series of identical clock-ticks into "tick-tock-tick-tock".^{[xiv] [15]}

A unproblematic [quadr]duple drum blueprint, which lays a foundation of duration common in popular music.

Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was adult in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural selection.^[16] Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, merely only humans have the power to be engaged (entrained) in rhythmically coordinated vocalizations and other activities. According to Jordania, development of the sense of rhythm was central for the achievement of the specific neurological country of the battle trance, crucial for the development of the effective defence system of early hominids. Rhythmic war cry, rhythmic drumming by shamans, rhythmic drilling of the soldiers and contemporary professional person combat forces listening to the heavy rhythmic stone music^[17] all employ the ability of rhythm to unite human individuals into a shared collective identity where group members put the interests of the grouping to a higher place their individual interests and condom.

Some types of parrots tin know rhythm.^[18] Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that chimpanzees and other animals show no like appreciation of rhythm yet posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, and then that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost (eastward.k. past stroke). "There is non a single report of an animal being trained to tap, peck, or move in synchrony with an auditory beat",^[19] Sacks write, "No dubiousness many pet lovers will dispute this notion, and indeed many animals, from the Lipizzaner horses of the Castilian Riding Schoolhouse of Vienna to performing circus animals appear to 'dance' to music. Information technology is not clear whether they are doing so or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans around them."^[20] Homo rhythmic arts are maybe to some extent rooted in courtship ritual.^[21]

Compound triple drum pattern: divides three beats into iii; contains repetition on iii levels

The establishment of a bones beat requires the perception of a regular sequence of distinct brusque-duration pulses and, as a subjective perception of loudness is relative to groundwork noise levels, a pulse must decay to silence before the next occurs if it is to be really distinct. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm. Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one fourth dimension signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan.

For information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala (music). For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Standard arabic music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and Dumbek rhythms.

Terminology [edit]

Pulse, shell and measure [edit]

Metric levels: vanquish level shown in centre with division levels in a higher place and multiple levels beneath.

As a piece of music unfolds, its rhythmic structure is perceived non as a series of discrete contained units strung together in a mechanical, additive, way like chaplet [or "pulses"], but every bit an organic process in which smaller rhythmic motives, whole possessing a shape and construction of their ain, also office equally integral parts of a larger ["architectonic"] rhythmic arrangement.^[22]

Most music, dance and oral poetry establishes and maintains an underlying "metric level", a bones unit of measurement of time that may exist audible or implied, the pulse or tactus of the mensural level,^{[23] [6] [24]} or crush level, sometimes simply called the beat. This consists of a (repeating) serial of identical yet distinct periodic brusk-duration stimuli perceived as points in fourth dimension.^[25] The "shell" pulse is non necessarily the fastest or the slowest component of the rhythm but the one that is perceived as key: information technology has a tempo to which listeners entrain equally they tap their foot or trip the light fantastic toe to a piece of music.^[26] It is currently most often designated equally a crotchet or quarter notation in western notation (run into time signature). Faster levels are partitioning levels, and slower levels are multiple levels.^[25] Maury Yeston clarified "Rhythms of recurrence" ascend from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups.^[27] "Once a metric hierarchy has been established, nosotros, as listeners, will maintain that organization as long as minimal evidence is present".^[28]

Unit and gesture [edit]

Rhythmic units: sectionalization level shown above and rhythmic units shown below

A durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be chosen a rhythmic unit. These may exist classified equally:

• Metric – fifty-fifty patterns, such as steady 8th notes or pulses;
• Intrametric – confirming patterns, such as dotted eighth-sixteenth note and swing patterns;
• Contrametric – non-confirming, or syncopated patterns; and
• Extrametric – irregular patterns, such every bit tuplets.

A rhythmic gesture is any durational design that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit, does not occupy a menstruum of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level. It may be described co-ordinate to its beginning and catastrophe or by the rhythmic units it contains. Rhythms that begin on a strong pulse are thetic, those starting time on a weak pulse are anacrustic and those outset after a rest or tied-over note are chosen initial residuum. Endings on a potent pulse are strong, on a weak pulse, weak and those that end on a potent or weak upbeat are upbeat.^[29]

Alternation and repetition [edit]

Rhythm is marked by the regulated succession of opposite elements: the dynamics of the strong and weak shell, the played beat and the inaudible but implied rest beat, or the long and brusk annotation. Likewise as perceiving rhythm humans must exist able to anticipate it. This depends on repetition of a design that is curt plenty to memorize.

The alternation of the stiff and weak beat is fundamental to the aboriginal language of poetry, trip the light fantastic toe and music. The common poetic term "foot" refers, every bit in trip the light fantastic, to the lifting and tapping of the foot in time. In a similar way musicians speak of an upbeat and a downbeat and of the "on" and "off" vanquish. These contrasts naturally facilitate a dual bureaucracy of rhythm and depend on repeating patterns of duration, accent and rest forming a "pulse-grouping" that corresponds to the poetic foot. Normally such pulse-groups are defined by taking the nearly absolute beat out every bit the start and counting the pulses until the next accent.^[30]Scholes 1977b A rhythm that accents another beat out and de-emphasises the downbeat as established or causeless from the tune or from a preceding rhythm is called syncopated rhythm.

Normally, even the nearly complex of meters may exist cleaved downwards into a chain of duple and triple pulses^{[xxx] [fourteen]} either past add-on or division. According to Pierre Boulez, trounce structures across four, in western music, are "simply not natural".^[31]

Tempo and duration [edit]

The tempo of the piece is the speed or frequency of the tactus, a mensurate of how quickly the shell flows. This is oftentimes measured in 'beats per infinitesimal' (bpm): sixty bpm ways a speed of one shell per 2d, a frequency of ane Hz. A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern that has a period equivalent to a pulse or several pulses.^[32] The elapsing of any such unit is inversely related to its tempo.

Musical sound may be analyzed on five different time scales, which Moravscik has arranged in gild of increasing elapsing.^[33]

• Supershort: a single cycle of an audible wave, approximately 1⁄thirty – 1⁄x,000 second (30–ten,000 Hz or more than ane,800 bpm). These, though rhythmic in nature, are not perceived every bit split up events merely as continuous musical pitch.
• Brusk: of the order of one second (1 Hz, 60 bpm, 10–100,000 audio cycles). Musical tempo is by and large specified in the range xl to 240 beats per infinitesimal. A continuous pulse cannot exist perceived as a musical beat if it is faster than eight–ten per second (8–10 Hz, 480–600 bpm) or slower than 1 per 1.v–2 seconds (0.half dozen–0.5 Hz, 40–thirty bpm). Too fast a trounce becomes a drone, too irksome a succession of sounds seems unconnected.^[34] This time frame roughly corresponds to the human heart rate and to the duration of a unmarried step, syllable or rhythmic gesture.
• Medium: ≥ few seconds, this median durational level "defines rhythm in music"^[33] as information technology allows the definition of a rhythmic unit, the arrangement of an entire sequence of accented, unaccented and silent or "rest" pulses into the cells of a measure out that may give ascent to the "briefest intelligible and cocky-real musical unit",^[15] a motif or effigy. This may be further organized, by repetition and variation, into a definite phrase that may characterise an entire genre of music, dance or verse and that may exist regarded equally the central formal unit of music.^[35]
• Long: ≥ many seconds or a infinitesimal, corresponding to a durational unit that "consists of musical phrases"^[33]—which may make up a melody, a formal section, a poetic stanza or a characteristic sequence of dance moves and steps. Thus the temporal regularity of musical organisation includes the most elementary levels of musical class.^[36]
• Very long: ≥ minutes or many hours, musical compositions or subdivisions of compositions.

Curtis Roads^[37] takes a wider view by distinguishing nine-time scales, this time in order of decreasing duration. The outset two, the infinite and the supra musical, encompass natural periodicities of months, years, decades, centuries, and greater, while the last three, the sample and subsample, which have account of digital and electronic rates "too brief to be properly recorded or perceived", measured in millionths of seconds (microseconds), and finally the infinitesimal or infinitely cursory, are again in the extra-musical domain. Roads' Macro level, encompassing "overall musical architecture or course" roughly corresponds to Moravcsik's "very long" division while his Meso level, the level of "divisions of form" including movements, sections, phrases taking seconds or minutes, is too similar to Moravcsik's "long" category. Roads' Sound object:^{[38] [ incomplete brusk citation ] [39] [ incomplete short commendation ]} "a basic unit of measurement of musical structure" and a generalization of note (Xenakis' mini structural time scale); fraction of a 2d to several seconds, and his Microsound (see granular synthesis) down to the threshold of audible perception; thousandths to millionths of seconds, are similarly comparable to Moravcsik's "short" and "supershort" levels of duration.

Rhythm–tempo interaction [edit]

One difficulty in defining rhythm is the dependence of its perception on tempo, and, conversely, the dependence of tempo perception on rhythm. Furthermore, the rhythm–tempo interaction is context dependent, as explained by Andranik Tangian using an example of the leading rhythm of ″Promenade″ from Moussorgsky'due south Pictures at an Exhibition:(^{[40] [41]}

This rhythm is perceived as information technology is rather than as the first 3 events repeated at a double tempo (denoted as R012 = repeat from 0, one time, twice faster):

R012

Even so, the motive with this rhythm in the Moussorgsky'due south piece

is rather perceived as a echo

R012

This context-dependent perception of rhythm is explained past the principle of correlative perception, according to which data are perceived in the simplest way. From the viewpoint of Kolmogorov's complexity theory, this means such a representation of the data that minimizes the amount of memory.

The example considered suggests 2 alternative representations of the aforementioned rhythm: as information technology is, and equally the rhythm-tempo interaction – a ii-level representation in terms of a generative rhythmic pattern and a "tempo curve". Table 1 displays these possibilities both with and without pitch, assuming that i duration requires one byte of information, 1 byte is needed for the pitch of one tone, and invoking the repeat algorithm with its parameters R012 takes four bytes. As shown in the bottom row of the table, the rhythm without pitch requires fewer bytes if it is "perceived" as it is, without repetitions and tempo leaps. On the opposite, its melodic version requires fewer bytes if the rhythm is "perceived" equally being repeated at a double tempo.

Complexity of representation of time events

	Rhythm only			Rhythm with pitch
	Complete coding	Coding as repeat		Consummate coding	Coding every bit repeat
		R012			R012
Complexity of rhythmic pattern	half dozen bytes	3 bytes		12 bytes	half-dozen bytes
Complexity of its transformation	0 bytes	4 bytes		0 bytes	4 bytes
Full complexity	six bytes	7 bytes		12 bytes	10 bytes

Thus, the loop of interdependence of rhythm and tempo is overcome due to the simplicity criterion, which "optimally" distributes the complexity of perception between rhythm and tempo. In the above instance, the repetition is recognized because of additional repetition of the melodic profile, which results in a certain redundancy of the musical structure, making the recognition of the rhythmic blueprint "robust" under tempo deviations. By and large speaking, the more redundant the "musical support" of a rhythmic pattern, the ameliorate its recognizability under augmentations and diminutions, that is, its distortions are perceived equally tempo variations rather than rhythmic changes:

By taking into account melodic context, homogeneity of accompaniment, harmonic pulsation, and other cues, the range of open-door tempo deviations tin be extended further, however still not preventing musically normal perception. For example, Skrjabin's own performance of his Poem op. 32 no. 1 transcribed from a piano-roll recording contains tempo deviations within . = 19/119, a span of 5.5 times.^[42] Such tempo deviations are strictly prohibited, for example, in Bulgarian or Turkish music based on so-called additive rhythms with circuitous elapsing ratios, which can also be explained by the principle of correlativity of perception. If a rhythm is not structurally redundant, then even minor tempo deviations are not perceived as accelerando or ritardando but rather given an impression of a alter in rhythm, which implies an inadequate perception of musical pregnant.^[43]

Metric construction [edit]

Notation of a clave rhythm pattern: Each cell of the filigree corresponds to a fixed duration of time with a resolution fine enough to capture the timing of the pattern, which may be counted as 2 bars of four beats in divisive (metrical or symmetrical) rhythm, each trounce divided into ii cells. The first bar of the pattern may likewise usefully exist counted additively (in measured or asymmetrical rhythm) as 3 + 3 + 2 .

The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech is called prosody (see also: prosody (music)): it is a topic in linguistics and poetics, where it means the number of lines in a verse, the number of syllables in each line and the arrangement of those syllables equally long or short, accented or unaccented. Music inherited the term "meter or metre" from the terminology of verse.^{[14] [fifteen] [44]})

The metric structure of music includes meter, tempo and all other rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity against which the foreground details or durational patterns of the music are projected.^[45] The terminology of western music is notoriously imprecise in this surface area.^[14] MacPherson preferred to speak of "fourth dimension" and "rhythmic shape",^[36] Imogen Holst of "measured rhythm".^[46]

Dance music has instantly recognizable patterns of beats congenital upon a characteristic tempo and measure. The Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing defines the tango, for case, every bit to exist danced in ²
₄ fourth dimension at approximately 66 beats per infinitesimal. The basic slow pace forwards or backwards, lasting for one shell, is called a "deadening", then that a full "right–left" step is equal to one ²
_iv measure.^[47] (Meet Rhythm and dance.)

Note of iii measures of a clave design preceded by 1 measure of steady quarter notes. This pattern is noted in double time relative to the one above, in 1 instead of two four-shell measures.

Four beats followed by three clave patterns

The general classifications of metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm may be distinguished.^[48] Metrical or divisive rhythm, past far the almost common in Western music calculates each time value equally a multiple or fraction of the trounce. Normal accents re-occur regularly providing systematical grouping (measures). Measured rhythm (additive rhythm) also calculates each time value as a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit but the accents do not recur regularly within the wheel. Free rhythm is where there is neither,^[48] such as in Christian chant, which has a basic pulse but a freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of poetry.^[15] See Costless time (music).

Finally some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and not-European music such as Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric.^[49] Senza misura is an Italian musical term for "without meter", pregnant to play without a trounce, using time to measure how long it will take to play the bar.^[50]

Composite rhythm [edit]

A composite rhythm is the durations and patterns (rhythm) produced past amalgamating all sounding parts of a musical texture. In music of the common practise period, the composite rhythm usually confirms the meter, often in metric or even-note patterns identical to the pulse on a specific metric level. White defines composite rhythm every bit, "the resultant overall rhythmic joint among all the voices of a contrapuntal texture".^[51] This concept was meantime defined as "set on point rhythm" by Maury Yeston in 1976 equally "the extreme rhythmic foreground of a composition – the accented surface of articulated movement".^[52]

African music [edit]

A Griot performs at Diffa, Niger, West Africa. The Griot is playing a Ngoni or Xalam.

In the Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. Babatunde Olatunji (1927–2003) developed a simple series of spoken sounds for instruction the rhythms of the hand-pulsate, using half-dozen vocal sounds, "Goon, Doon, Go, Do, Pa, Ta", for three basic sounds on the pulsate, each played with either the left or the right hand.^{[ citation needed ]} The argue about the ceremoniousness of staff notation for African music is a subject of item interest to outsiders while African scholars from Kyagambiddwa to Kongo have, for the nigh part, accepted the conventions and limitations of staff notation, and produced transcriptions to inform and enable word and argue.^[53]

John Miller^[54] has argued that West African music is based on the tension between rhythms, polyrhythms created by the simultaneous sounding of two or more different rhythms, generally ane ascendant rhythm interacting with 1 or more than independent competing rhythms. These oft oppose or complement each other and the dominant rhythm. Moral values underpin a musical organisation based on repetition of relatively unproblematic patterns that run across at afar cross-rhythmic intervals and on call-and-response course. Collective utterances such equally proverbs or lineages appear either in phrases translated into "drum talk" or in the words of songs. People look musicians to stimulate participation by reacting to people dancing. Appreciation of musicians is related to the effectiveness of their upholding community values.^[55]

Indian music [edit]

Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. Sheila Chandra, an English language popular singer of Indian descent, fabricated performances based on her singing these patterns. In Indian classical music, the Tala of a composition is the rhythmic design over which the whole piece is structured.

Western music [edit]

In the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Philip Drinking glass, and Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using odd meters, and techniques such every bit phasing and additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complication to disrupt the sense of a regular shell, leading eventually to the widespread utilize of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. This use may be explained by a annotate of John Cage's where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly irresolute pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings.^[56] La Monte Immature likewise wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists just of long sustained tones (drones). In the 1930s, Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with Leon Theremin to invent the rhythmicon, the outset electronic rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the player piano.

Linguistics [edit]

In linguistics, rhythm or isochrony is one of the three aspects of prosody, along with stress and intonation. Languages can exist categorized according to whether they are syllable-timed, mora-timed, or stress-timed. Speakers of syllable-timed languages such as Spanish and Cantonese put roughly equal time on each syllable; in contrast, speakers of stressed-timed languages such as English and Mandarin Chinese put roughly equal time lags between stressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables in between them being adjusted to adjust the stress timing.

Narmour^[57] describes three categories of prosodic rules that create rhythmic successions that are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-brusk). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot business relationship for syncopation and suggests the concept of transformation.^[58]

References [edit]

1. ^ Liddell and Scott 1996.
2. ^ Anon. 1971, 2537.
3. ^ Cooper and Meyer 1960, 6.
4. ^ Jirousek 1995.
5. ^ Yeston 1976.
6. ^ ^{a b} Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983.
7. ^ Jerky 1997.
8. ^ Toussaint 2005.
9. ^ Rothstein 1989.
10. ^ Lester 1986.
11. ^ Goodall 2006, 0:03:x.
12. ^ Patel 2014, 1.
13. ^ London 2004, 4.
14. ^ ^{a b c d} Scholes 1977b.
15. ^ ^{a b c d} Scholes 1977c.
16. ^ Jordania 2011, 99–101.
17. ^ Pieslak 2009,^{[ page needed ]}.
18. ^ Anon. 2009.
19. ^ Patel 2006, cited in Sacks 2007, 239–240
20. ^ Sacks 2007, 239–240.
21. ^ Mithen 2005,^{[ page needed ]}.
22. ^ Cooper and Meyer 1960, 2.
23. ^ Berry 1987, 349.
24. ^ Fitch and Rosenfeld 2007, 44.
25. ^ ^{a b} Winold 1975, 213.
26. ^ Handel 1989.
27. ^ Yeston 1976, 50–52.
28. ^ Lester 1986, 77.
29. ^ Winold 1975, 239.
30. ^ ^{a b} MacPherson 1930, 5.
31. ^ Slatkin n.d., at 5:05.
32. ^ Winold 1975, 237.
33. ^ ^{a b c} Moravcsik 2002, 114.
34. ^ Fraisse 1956^{[ page needed ]}; Woodrow 1951^{[ page needed ]}, both quoted in Covaciu-Pogorilowski n.d.
35. ^ MacPherson 1930,^{[ folio needed ]}.
36. ^ ^{a b} MacPherson 1930, 3.
37. ^ Roads 2001.
38. ^ Schaeffer 1959. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchaeffer1959 (help)
39. ^ Schaeffer 1977. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchaeffer1977 (aid)
40. ^ Tanguiane 1993.
41. ^ Tanguiane 1994, pp. 465–502.
42. ^ Skrjabin 1960.
43. ^ Tanguiane 1994, p. 480.
44. ^ Latham 2002.
45. ^ Winold 1975, 209–210.
46. ^ Holst 1963, 17.
47. ^ Majestic Society of Teachers of Dancing 1977,^{[ page needed ]}.
48. ^ ^{a b} Cooper 1973, 30.
49. ^ Karpinski 2000, 19.
50. ^ Forney and Machlis 2007,^{[ page needed ]}.
51. ^ White 1976, 136.
52. ^ Yeston 1976, 41–42.
53. ^ Agawu 2003, 52.
54. ^ Chernoff 1979.
55. ^ Chernoff 1979,^{[ folio needed ]}.
56. ^ Sandow 2004, 257.
57. ^ Narmour 1977, cited in Winold 1975,^{[ page needed ]}
58. ^ Middleton 1990,^{[ page needed ]}.

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• Narmour, Eugene. Beyond Schenkerism: The Demand for Alternatives in Music Analysis. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Printing, 1977. Phoenix paperback edition 1980. ISBN 978-0-226-56847-8 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-226-56848-v (paperback).
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (2006). "Musical Rhythm, Linguistic Rhythm, and Human Development". Music Perception. Berkeley, California: Academy of California Press. 24 (1): 99–104. doi:ten.1525/mp.2006.24.ane.99. ISSN 0730-7829.
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (25 March 2014). "The Evolutionary Biology of Musical Rhythm: Was Darwin Incorrect?". PLOS Biological science. 12 (3): e1001821. doi:10.1371/periodical.pbio.1001821. PMC3965380. PMID 24667562.
• Pieslak, Jonathan (2009). Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Iraq State of war. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Printing.
• Roads, Curtis (2001). Microsound. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-18215-7, 978-0-262-68154-iv
• Rothstein, William (1989). Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 9780028721910.
• Sacks, Oliver (2007). "nineteen. Keeping Fourth dimension: Rhythm and Movement". Musicophilia, Tales of Music and the Encephalon. New York and Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 233–247. ISBN978-one-4000-4081-0.
• Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness". In The Pleasance of Modernist Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention, Ideology, edited by Arved Marking Ashby, 253–258. ISBN i-58046-143-3. Reprinted from The Hamlet Voice (16 March 1982).
• Scholes, Percy (1977b). "Metre", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford Academy Press. ISBN 0-19-311306-vi.
• Scholes, Percy (1977c). "Rhythm", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford Academy Printing. ISBN 0-19-311306-6.
• Slatkin, Leonard. north.d. "Discovering Music: Rhythm with Leonard Slatkin".
• Skrjabin, Alexander (1960). Poem for piano, Op. 32, No. i. Transcribed by P. Lobanov. Moscow: Gosudarstvennoye Muzykalnoye Izdatelstvo.
• Tanguiane, Andranick (1993). Artificial Perception and Music Recognition. Lecture Notes in Bogus Intelligence. Vol. 746. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN978-3-540-57394-4.
• Tanguiane, Andranick (1994). "A principle of correlativity of perception and its application to music recognition". Music Perception. xi (4): 465–502. doi:10.2307/40285634. JSTOR 40285634.
• Toussaint, Godfried T. 2005. "The Geometry of Musical Rhythm". In Proceedings of the Nihon Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, vol. 3742: Lecture Notes in Informatics, edited by J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and Ten. Tan, 198–212. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
• White, John David. (1976). The Analysis of Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-033233-10.
• Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music". In Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, edited by Gary Wittlich, 208–269. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-v.
• Woodrow, Herbert. "Time Perception". In A Handbook of Experimental Psychology, edited past Stanley Smith Stevens,^{[ page needed ]}. New York: Wiley, 1951.
• Yeston, Maury. 1976. The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. New Haven and London: Yale Academy Press. ISBN 0-300-01884-3.

Farther reading [edit]

• Giger, Peter (1993). Die Kunst des Rhythmus, Schott Music. A theoretical approach to western and non-western rhythms. ISBN 978-three-7957-1862-half dozen
• Honing, H. (2002). "Structure and estimation of rhythm and timing". Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Periodical of Music Theory]. seven (3): 227–232. Archived from the original on 2012-12-08.
• Humble, M. (2002). The Development of Rhythmic System in Indian Classical Music, MA dissertation, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
• Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm—What it is and How to Meliorate Your Sense of It. San Francisco: RhythmSource Press. ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4.
• Mazzola, Guerino (2017). The Topos of Music, Vol. I. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-64364-9.
• Percival, Harold W. (1946). Thinking and Destiny. The Give-and-take Foundation. ISBN978-0-911650-06-8.
• Palmer, John (2013). Rhythm to Become, Vision Edition and CE Books. A fast-rail collection of graded exercises from elementary to advanced level divided in 4 sections and including an additional chapter with rhythmic structures used in contemporary music. ISMN 979-0-9002315-1-2
• Petersen, Peter (2013). Music and Rhythm: Fundamentals, History, Analysis. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-iii-631-64393-eight
• Scholes, Percy (1977a). "Grade", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the tenth ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited past John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311306-6.
• Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Drove—Music), Cambridge University Printing; kickoff edition, 2009.
• Van Der, Horst F. (1963). Maat en Ritme, Broekmans & Van Poppel, ISBN 9789491906008. A collection of graded exercises in two volumes, from elementary to advanced level.
• Yeston, Maury (Autumn 1975). "Rubato and the Middleground". Journal of Music Theory. 19 (2): 286–301. doi:ten.2307/843592. JSTOR 843592.

External links [edit]

Look upwards rhythm in Wiktionary, the costless dictionary.

• 'Rhythm of Prose', William Morrison Patterson ,Columbia University Printing 1917
• Melodyhound has a "Query by Tapping" search that allows users to place music based on rhythm
• Louis Hébert, "A Little Semiotics of Rhythm. Elements of Rhythmology", in Signo

grayhinnelaming.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm